Grazing management and seasonality strongly influence the recovery potential of herbaceous vegetation in semi-arid rangelands of southern Ethiopia after history of heavy grazing. We investigated effects of management (enclosures versus grazed landscapes), age of enclosures and seasonality related to rainfall (i.e., independent variables) on herbaceous biomass, grass basal cover, herbaceous species abundance, species richness and diversity in a savanna rangeland of southern Ethiopia. We further assessed the relationship between the herbaceous biomass and species richness. Management significantly affected most of the herbaceous response variables (i.e., comparing enclosures and open grazed). Herbaceous biomass, grass basal cover, herbaceous species richness and diversity were greater in enclosures than in grazed areas. Rainfall was also influential on herbaceous biomass, grass basal cover, abundance of herbaceous species, herbaceous species richness and diversity. Herbaceous biomass, abundance and diversity did not however vary with the age of enclosures, while herbaceous species richness appeared to decrease as the age of enclosures advanced. Grass basal cover initially decreased and later on increased with the age of enclosures, so that the older enclosures disclosed improvement of grass basal cover.

Data from the nucleus herd at the International Trypanotolerance Centre (ITC) in The Gambia were used to evaluate the current N'Dama cattle breeding scheme implemented in a low input production system. Opportunities were investigated to further improve the breeding scheme through a comparison of alternatives to the current selection strategy. A deterministic simulation model was used to demonstrate the genetic and economic benefits of the different schemes. The breeding goal consisted of daily weight gain (from 15 to 36 months of age under high tsetse challenge conditions, DWG, g/day) and milk yield (milk off-take in the first 100 days of lactation, MY, kg). Substantial genetic response per year of 3.40 kg in MY and 0.25 g/day in DWG could be achieved. Simulation results showed that early selection of nucleus sires resulted in relatively higher genetic and economic responses compared to all other schemes investigated. For a practical breeding scheme (low input system), the scheme based on early selection of nucleus sires should be recommended since this leads to the best improvements in the overall breeding goal

This study aimed at better understanding of the characteristics of feeding and breeding practices smallholder farmers adopt in intensifying their dairy production. Use of hired labour for fodder gathering, growing of fodder crops and purchase of feeds increased with increasing intensification, but Bos taurus breeds did not respond to increasing feeding intensification while Bos indicus cattle responded, calving at earlier age and yielding more milk. Overall, first calving occurred at 32 months, but days open prolonged to 250 days with milk yield of 4 litres per day of calving interval. A principal component analysis extracted six feeding and breeding components, explaining 71.79% of the total variations in feeding and breeding practices for dairy intensification. The six components were labelled: non- intensified feeding and breeding; breeding decisions based-intensification; high external resource based-intensification; moderate resource based-intensification; resource poor based-intensification; and moderate external resource based-intensification. These characteristics points to some `evolutionary process¿ of intensification involving feeding and breeding decisions, depending on the risk-bearing capacity of the household. Intensification enhancing interventions for smallholders need be considered in the context of the household economy. Interventions on feeding and breeding have to be packaged together holistically if intensification is to enhance productivity. A selective intervention on only one of these is associated with low productivity levels, only contributing to sustaining family subsistence livelihoods

Given the high amounts of apple rejected for commercialization its use as alternative feed for ruminants should be considered. This study was designed to investigate the nutritive value of apple pulp-wheat straw mixtures. Chemical composition, in vitro organic matter digestibility (IVOMD) and gas production profiles of ensiled mixtures containing 85 (M85), 70 (M70), and 50% (M50) of apple pulp were studied at 0, 15, 30 and 45 days. Fermentation quality was assessed by pH, lactic acid, ethanol and acetate. The results showed that non fibre carbohydrates (NFC) decreased along the storage period while DM stabilized after 30 days. It was also shown that pH increased along the storage period and the highest values for ethanol and acetic acid concentrations were observed in the apple pulp mixtures (Apple). Within mixtures, IVOMD decreased along the storage period, being however similar across mixtures after long periods of storage. Gas production analysis indicated that easily fermentable components (VFA) and the less easily fermentable constituents (VFB) decreased along the storage period, but VFB showed no differences between mixtures for the first two storage periods. Results suggest the possibility of reducing ethanol concentration of apple pulp silages through the incorporation of fibrous components; however silage additives to limit fermentation of sugars into ethanol should be used to ensure the course of the conservation process.

In order to design an effective small ruminant (i.e., goats and sheep) breeding program in Kenya and other areas with similar production circumstances, it is important to understand the socio-economic factors applying to the relevant production system. Information on these was obtained from a questionnaire carried out on both smallholders and pastoral/ extensive farmers in seven selected districts. From the 458 responding households, 18% kept only goats, 34% kept only sheep, and 48% kept both species. Goats were generally ranked lower in popularity. The most represented breeds in the households were the indigenous East African goat and the Red Maasai sheep, and crossbred genotypes of goats and sheep. However, according to the farmers, the pure breeds were more popular than the crossbreeds. The households owned the majority of the used land for small ruminant production. In many cases, male household members were in control of the land. Animals were in most cases owned by the household head only or by both the household head and the spouse. The most important water source for animals was the river with the frequency of watering in the dry season in some cases being as low as once a day. Both males and females made most decisions in smallholder households. Women in the pastoral/ extensive systems participated less significantly in decision making than those in smallholder households, although they were responsible to many animal production related activities.

Smallholders with dual-purpose cattle production systems in most Central America experience a shortage of forages during the dry season (4-8 month. As a result, substantially lower milk production and weight gain occurs. Dual-purpose operations seeking to maximize milk and beef production in the dry season can produce and feed hay or silage to their livestock. The increase in milk and beef production due to feeding hay or silage during the dry season on commercial dual-purpose cattle productions systems, the production costs of making silage or hay and the benefits as a result of feeding silage or hay are estimated and compared in Honduras and Costa Rica. Due to feeding silage or hay, farmers in Honduras and Costa Rica have increased milk production during the dry season. The costs of feeding hay are lower in both countries, although farmers feed a higher amount (kg DM/cow/ day) than silage. Feeding silage or hay to milking cows is profitable in both countries. The income-cost ratio and the net benefit ($/ cow/day) due to feeding these feedstuffs are positive. Farmers with milking cows in Honduras realise a higher income-cost ratio and net benefit due to feeding silage and hay than farmers in Costa Rica. Likewise, beef cows or young livestock supplemented with these feeding alternatives don't loose weight during the dry season. In Honduras as well in Costa Rica, it is profitable to feed silage or hay to beef cows or young livestock. Currently, no silage and a small hay market exist in Honduras. Possibly, these will develop due to an increasing demand for these profitable feedstuffs. In Costa Rica thanks to the efforts of agricultural organisations, a hay market of different qualities is developing.

Smallholders with dual-purpose cattle production systems in most Central America experience a shortage of forages during the dry season (4-8 month. As a result, substantially lower milk production and weight gain occurs. Dual-purpose operations seeking to maximize milk and beef production in the dry season can produce and feed hay or silage to their livestock. The increase in milk and beef production due to feeding hay or silage during the dry season on commercial dual-purpose cattle productions systems, the production costs of making silage or hay and the benefits as a result of feeding silage or hay are estimated and compared in Honduras and Costa Rica. Due to feeding silage or hay, farmers in Honduras and Costa Rica have increased milk production during the dry season. The costs of feeding hay are lower in both countries, although farmers feed a higher amount (kg DM/cow/day) than silage. Feeding silage or hay to milking cows is profitable in both countries. The income-cost ratio and the net benefit ($/cow/day) due to feeding these feedstuffs are positive. Farmers with milking cows in Honduras realise a higher income-cost ratio and net benefit due to feeding silage and hay than farmers in Costa Rica. Likewise, beef cows or young livestock supplemented with these feeding alternatives don't loose weight during the dry season. In Honduras as well in Costa Rica, it is profitable to feed silage or hay to beef cows or young livestock. Currently, no silage and a small hay market exist in Honduras. Possibly, these will develop due to an increasing demand for these profitable feedstuffs. In Costa Rica thanks to the efforts of agricultural organisations, a hay market of different qualities is developing.

Development programs recommend fattening of pigs aged between 1 and 2 years by supplementing their local diet with industrial cereal bran, to improve womens' income. At the best moment to start this activity, just after the rainy season, high demand for these pigs induced higher prices and low margins. The start after the rainy season does not fit in the existing production system as farmers sell their surplus pigs before and during the rainy season. Traditional pig fattening lasts 3 years. About 60 women in 8 villages tested early fattening of young piglets. Piglets of the treatment were supplemented with a special concentrate and showed higher daily weight gains compared to the traditionally fed group. The gross margin of the early fattening was equal to the recommended pig fattening, but the first solved problems related to availability of piglets and thus fits better in the existing production system. Almost half of the early fattened pigs were sold within a year. Most of the women appreciated the experiment positively and suggested positive margins can be attained by selecting suitable piglets and rigorously respecting feeding and management schemes. Criteria were developed for selecting the most suitable piglets with a simple tailor tape. A projection on 3 years shows that the gross margin of early fattening is higher compared to traditional fattening and that it facilitates the production of more meat against lower cost.