The objectives in organic farming are to create and maintain a balance between enviromnent protection and the techology applied to each crop variety, starting with the tillage system which has the capacity to preserve the balance between the natural resources and can asure the optimum on plants cultural requirements.The yields level depends on the optimum application of all techological steps starting with variety choice and finishing with crop harvest. The output has to give satisfactory results both in quantity and quality. Nowadays the quantity is overwhelmed by the quality issue. Consumers are more and more oriented to buy healthy food, and they are awared that healthy food is produced mainly in organic farming system.

With the aim of improving fertiliser nitrogen (N) strategies and reducing N leaching, seasonal changes in soil N supply in crop sequences with winter wheat after winter oilseed rape were examined through field experiments. Break crop effects on wheat after oilseed rape, compared with after peas and oats, were determined as regards residual N, yield and optimum N rate (Opt-N). The impact of residues of the previous crops on net N mineralisation-immobilisation during autumn and winter was studied in field incubation experiments. The influence of spring N fertilisation on winter wheat yields was investigated. Nitrate leaching under winter oilseed rape, peas and oats, and under subsequent wheat was quantified, and measures against leaching were studied. Opt-N to winter wheat was 25 and 15 kg ha-1 lower after winter oilseed rape and peas, respectively, than after oats, despite a yield increase of 700 kg ha-1 after both. The uptake of soil N by wheat until maturity was 26 and 20 kg N ha-1 larger after oilseed rape and peas. Net N mineralisation (Nnet) between spring and maturity was higher after oilseed rape and peas than after oats. Nnet corresponded to 84% of the uptake (or supply) of soil N. The variations in wheat yield at optimum, together with either uptake of soil N or Nnet, explained 70% of the variation in Opt-N. Thus predicting wheat yield and supply of soil N, or Nnet, after previous crops is crucial for the calculation of Opt-N. Due to the large N uptake of winter oilseed rape during the autumn, N leaching during the following winter was lower than during the winter with subsequent winter wheat. More soil mineral N was found at harvest of winter oilseed rape and peas than after oats, affecting later leaching. Above-ground residues of oilseed rape, peas and oats incorporated into soil in September caused N immobilisation during autumn and winter, with the shortest duration for peas. Thus the residue N did not increase leaching risks. Perennial ryegrass as a catch crop undersown in spring in oilseed rape and peas reduced N leaching during winter, whereas direct drilling of winter wheat did not. Fertilisation of oilseed rape above Opt-N enhanced leaching by 0.5 kg N ha-1 per kg fertiliser N. It was concluded that optimising the spring N rate to winter oilseed rape was the most important measure against leaching under subsequent wheat.

The N, P and K effects of mineral fertilisers were examined in a long-term fertilisation experiment set up on chernozem soil with forest residues. The data from 20 experiments on winter wheat and 24 on maize were evaluated as a function of the year, the forecrop and the soil nutrient supplies.Of the two plant species, N effects were found to be greater for winter wheat. When sown after maize, the N responses of both wheat and maize were almost 1 t ha ⁻¹ greater than when winter wheat was the forecrop. The positive effect of phosphorus was only significant in winter wheat, while that of potassium was not significant for either species.In a wheat-wheat sequence, N fertiliser alone was only effective in wet years. In winter wheat, no phosphorus effects could be detected in any year without N fertilisation. In years with extreme weather conditions, P effects were only significant when wheat was grown after cereals.In dry years nitrogen only had a significant effect on the yield of maize after wheat if it was combined with phosphorus and potassium. In years with average or above-average rainfall maize was able to extract sufficient phosphorus for its development even from soils with poor P supplies; yield increases were limited by other factors.

The energy efficiency of different implements and tillage systems for winter wheat in Sweden was examined. Mouldboard ploughing was compared with different ploughless tillage systems (chisel plough, disc, disc-press) and direct drilling on a clay and a silt loam soil during three years. Fuel consumption was measured for all tillage operations, including seedbed preparation and sowing. Energy balances were calculated, based on the direct and indirect use of fossil fuels in crop production. Specific draught (draught per cross-sectional area of soil) was highest for the disc-press implement, while mouldboard ploughing gave the lowest specific surface (surface area per kg soil). Total energy requirement for tillage ranged from 0.6 to 2.8GJha⁻¹ on the clay soil and 0.5 to 1.5GJha⁻¹ on the silt loam. Yield of winter wheat in the ploughless tillage and mouldboard ploughing systems was similar when oats or barley were grown as preceding crops. Growing winter wheat after winter wheat caused yield losses in treatments with reduced tillage intensity, especially direct drilling. Overall energy use in tillage as a proportion of total energy use for crop production ranged from 5% for direct drilling on the silt loam soil to 25% for mouldboard ploughing on the clay. The energy input in tillage was low compared with the energy in the harvested crop and thus energy efficiency, expressed as energy gain, depended mainly on crop yield and not on tillage intensity. For Swedish conditions, a small increase in energy gain might be expected for ploughless tillage compared with mouldboard ploughing when winter wheat is grown with a good preceding crop, but a lower energy gain when winter wheat is grown after winter wheat.

A field experiment was conducted to investigate the effect of nitrogen fertilizer applications on some quality components of wheat. For winter wheat genotypes (Ana Morava, Vizija, L-3027 and Perla) were grown at Small Grains Research Centre Kragujevac in three years (2005–2007) at three levels of nitrogen fertilization (N ₁ = 60 kg N ha ⁻¹ , N ₂ = 90 kg N ha ⁻¹ and N ₃ = 120 kg N ha ⁻¹). Zeleny sedimentation value and wet gluten content in divergent wheat genotypes were analyzed in depending on the nitrogen nutrition and years. Nitrogen fertilization significantly increased sedimentation value and wet gluten content. The highest increasing of both traits established in N ₃ variant when applied 120 kg ha ⁻¹ of nitrogen. Genotypes reacted differently to N level increasing. Cultivar Perla had the highest value of sedimentation and wet gluten content and this cultivar the best reacted to increasing N levels. Statistically significant differences for sedimentation value and wet gluten content were found among cultivars, years, N-doses and for all their interactions. The results have shown that the best quality of wheat was with nitrogen applied of 120 kg N ha ⁻¹ . Correlation between nitrogen applications and sedimentation value was significant (r = 0.208*), while between N-doses and wet gluten content was high significant (r = 0.290**). Sedimentation value and wet gluten content positively correlated (r = 0.783**).

Improved winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) cultivars are needed for the diverse environments in Central and West Asia to improve rural livelihoods. This study was conducted to determine the performance of elite winter wheat breeding lines developed by the International Winter Wheat Improvement Program (IWWIP), to analyze their stability across diverse environments, and to identify superior genotypes that could be valuable for winter wheat improvement or varietal release. One hundred and one advanced winter wheat breeding lines and four check cultivars were tested over a 5-year period (2004-2008). Grain yield and agronomic traits were analyzed. Stability and genotypic superiority for grain yield were determined using genotype and genotype × environment (GGE) biplot analysis. The experimental genotypes showed high levels of grain yield in each year, with mean values ranging from 3.9 to 6.7 t ha⁻¹. A set of 25 experimental genotypes was identified. These were either equal or superior to the best check based on their high mean yield and stability across environments as assessed by the GGE biplot analysis. The more stable high yielding genotypes were ID800994.W/Falke, Agri/Nac//Attila, ID800994W/Vee//F900K/3/Pony/Opata, AU//YT542/N10B/3/II8260/4/JI/Hys/5/Yunnat Esskiy/6/KS82W409/Spn and F130-L-1-12/MV12. The superior genotypes also had acceptable maturity, plant height and 1,000-kernel weight. Among the superior lines, Agri/Nac//Attila and Shark/F4105W2.1 have already been proposed for release in Kyrgyzstan and Georgia, respectively. The findings provide information on wide adaptation of the internationally important winter wheat genotypes, and demonstrate that the IWWIP program is enriching the germplasm base in the region with superior winter wheat genotypes to the benefit of national and international winter wheat improvement programs.

Grain after enzymatic treatment, which is a starch-containing raw material, is used for ethanol production. Bioethanol production in Latvia began in 2006. Extraction of biofuels is a clean process, because the byproduct is used in various sectors of the economy. The bioethanol in Latvia was derived primarily from winter wheat, winter rye, and winter triticale. The objective of the research is to determine the different nitrogen fertiliser rates required for winter cereal crop yields and bioethanol outcome. The trials were carried out from 2005 to 2008 in Agricultural Science Centre of Latgale (Latvia). The method (ethanol outcome) is based on fermentation of saccharified cereal samples by yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae followed by the calculation of ethanol outcome and speed of fermentation. The highest starch content was in winter wheat and winter triticale grain, but the lowest - in winter rye grains. A close negative correlation (p is less than 0.05) was found for winter triticale and winter wheat between the ethanol outcome and thousand grain weight. Production of bioethanol from rye starch content is used with full utilisation of grain. The winter wheat has the largest ethanol outcome from one hectare.

Collections of Puccinia triticina were obtained from rust-infected wheat (Triticum aestivum) leaves provided by cooperators throughout the United States and from surveys of wheat fields and wheat breeding plots by USDA-ARS personnel in the Great Plains, Ohio River Valley, Southeast, and Washington State in order to determine the virulence of the wheat leaf rust population in 2008. Single uredinial isolates (730 in total) were derived from the collections and tested for virulence phenotype on lines of Thatcher wheat that are near-isogenic for leaf rust resistance genes Lr1, Lr2a, Lr2c, Lr3, Lr9, Lr16, Lr24, Lr26, Lr3ka, Lr11, Lr17, Lr30, LrB, Lr10, Lr14a, Lr18, Lr21, Lr28, and a winter wheat line with Lr41. Forty-eight virulence phenotypes were described. Virulence phenotypes TDBGG, TCRKG, and MLDSD were the three most common phenotypes. TDBGG is virulent to Lr24 and was found in both the soft red winter wheat and hard red winter wheat regions. Phenotype TCRKG is virulent to Lr11, Lr18, and Lr26 and is found mostly in the soft red winter wheat region in the eastern United States. Phenotype MLDSD is virulent to Lr17 and Lr41 and was widely distributed in the Great Plains. Virulence to Lr21 was not found in any of the tested isolates. Virulence to Lr11 and Lr18 increased in 2008 in the soft red winter wheat regions. Two separate epidemiological zones of P. triticina in the soft red winter wheat region of the southern and eastern states and in the hard red wheat region of the Great Plains were described.

Despite large variation among crop genotypes in response to Fe fertilization, there is no reliable indicator for identifying Fe-deficiency tolerant wheat genotypes with high grain yield. The aim of this investigation was to compare the grain yield response of 20 spring and 30 winter bread wheat genotypes to Fe fertilization under field conditions and to select high grain yield Fe-deficiency tolerant genotypes using a stress tolerance indicator (STI). Two individual trials, each one consisting two field plot experiments, were conducted during 2006-2007 and 2007-2008 growing seasons. Spring wheat genotypes (Trial l) and winter wheat genotypes (Trial 2) were planted at two different locations. Two Fe rates (0 and 20kg Feha⁻¹ as Fe-EDTA) were applied. Spring and winter wheat genotypes differed significantly (P <0.01) in the grain yield both with and without added Fe treatments. Application of Fe fertilizer increased grain yield of spring wheat genotypes by an average of 211 and 551kgha⁻¹ in Karaj and Isfahan locations, respectively. By Fe application, the mean grain yield of winter wheat genotypes increased 532 and 798kgha⁻¹ in Karaj and Isfahan sites, respectively. Iron efficiency (Fe-EF) significantly differed among wheat genotypes and ranged from 65% to 113% for spring wheat and from 69% to 125% for winter wheat genotypes. No significant correlation was found between Fe-EF and grain yield of spring wheat genotypes under Fe deficient conditions. For winter wheat genotypes grown in Mashhad, Fe-efficiency was not significantly correlated with the grain yield produced without added Fe treatment. The STI was significantly (P <0.01) varied among spring and winter wheat genotypes. The interaction between location and genotype had no significant effect on the STI. According to these results, the STI should be considered as an effective criterion for screening programs, if a high potential grain yield together with more stable response to Fe fertilization in different environments is desired.