Production of chrysanthemum (Dendranthema grandiflora) in greenhouses often requires intensive pesticide use, which raises serious concerns over food safety and human health. This study investigated uptake, translocation and residue dissipation of typical fungicides (metalaxyl-M and fludioxonil) and insecticides (cyantraniliprole and thiamethoxam) in greenhouse chrysanthemum when applied in soils. Chrysanthemum plants could absorb these pesticides from soils via roots to various degrees, and bioconcentration factors (BCFLS) were positively correlated with lipophilicity (log Kₒw) of pesticides. Highly lipophilic fludioxonil (log Kₒw = 4.12) had the greatest BCFLS (2.96 ± 0.41 g g⁻¹), whereas hydrophilic thiamethoxam (log Kₒw = −0.13) had the lowest (0.09 ± 0.03 g g⁻¹). Translocation factors (TF) from roots to shoots followed the order of TFₗₑₐf > TFₛₜₑₘ > TFfₗₒwₑᵣ. Metalaxyl-M and cyantraniliprole with medium lipophilicity (log Kₒw of 1.71 and 2.02, respectively) and hydrophilic thiamethoxam showed relatively strong translocation potentials with TF values in the range of 0.29–0.81, 0.36–2.74 and 0.30–1.03, respectively. Dissipation kinetics in chrysanthemum flowers followed the first-order with a half-life of 21.7, 5.5, 10.0 or 8.2 days for metalaxyl-M, fludioxonil, cyantraniliprole and thiamethoxam, respectively. Final residues of these four pesticides, including clothianidin (a primary toxic metabolite of thiamethoxam), in all chrysanthemum flower samples were below the maximum residue limit (MRL) values 21 days after two soil applications each at the recommended dose (i.e., 3.2, 2.1, 4.3 and 4.3 kg ha⁻¹, respectively). However, when doubling the recommended dose, the metabolite clothianidin remained at concentrations greater than the MRL, despite that thiamethoxam concentration was lower than the MRL value. This study provided valuable insights on the uptake and residues of metalaxyl-M, fludioxonil, cyantraniliprole and thiamethoxam (including its metabolite clothianidin) in greenhouse chrysanthemum production, and could help better assess food safety risks of chrysanthemum contamination by parent pesticides and their metabolites.

The goal of this study was to investigate the effects of ambient concentrations of pesticides combined with abiotic factors on the key aquatic species Daphnia magna, Chydorus sphaericus and Asellus aquaticus by means of 21 days field exposure experiments. In situ bioassays were deployed in ditches around flower bulb fields during spring and autumn 2011–2012. The results showed that phosphate was the most variable parameter followed by pesticides expressed as toxic units, as the main factors explaining differences between sites. Variation in reproduction and growth of cladoceran D. magna was largely explained by nutrients, whereas dissolved oxygen contributed mostly to variations in reproduction of C. sphaericus. Dissolved organic carbon contributed to variations in growth of the detrivore A. aquaticus. It is concluded that abiotic stressors rather than pesticides contributed significantly to the performance of aquatic invertebrates.

Few studies have investigated effects of increased background ozone in the absence of episodic peaks, despite a predicted increase throughout the northern hemisphere over the coming decades. In this study Leontodon hispidus was grown with Anthoxanthum odoratum or Dactylis glomerata and exposed in the UK to one of eight background ozone concentrations for 20 weeks in solardomes. Seasonal mean ozone concentrations ranged from 21.4 to 102.5 ppb. Ozone-induced senescence of L. hispidus was enhanced when grown with the more open canopy of A. odoratum compared to the denser growing D. glomerata. There was increased cover with increasing ozone exposure for both A. odoratum and D. glomerata, which resulted in an increase in the grass:Leontodon cover ratio in both community types. Carry-over effects of the ozone exposure were observed, including delayed winter die-back of L. hispidus and acceleration in the progression from flowers to seed-heads in the year following ozone exposure.

In several countries, flower import regulations are restricted to food security, by establishing maximum residue limits (MRL) for pesticides in flower-based food products and biosafety, in order to limit the circulation of vectors, pests and exotic species across borders. In this context, the lack of limits on pesticides in flower-products for ornamental purposes can influence the pesticide overuse in production areas, as well as the transfer of contaminated products between countries. Therefore, the purpose of this review was to discuss possible adverse effects on human and environmental health of pesticides used in floriculture, evaluating regulations on the use of these pesticides in the main importing and flower-producing countries. This review included 92 documents. The use of 201 compounds was identified by interviews and analytical measurements. Among them, 93 are banned by the European Union (EU), although 46.3 % of these compounds have been identified in samples from European countries. Latin American countries have a large number of scientific publications on pesticides in flower production (n = 51), while the EU and China have less studies (n = 24) and the United States and Japan have no studies. Regarding adverse health effects, poorer neurobehavioral development, reproductive disorders, congenital malformations and genotoxicity have been reported for residents of flower production areas and workers throughout the flower production cycle. Studies including water samples show overuse of pesticides, while environmental impacts are related to water and air contamination, soil degradation and adverse effects on the reproduction and development of non-target organisms. This review points out that the absence of MRL for non-edible flowers can be crucial for the trade of contaminated products across borders, including pesticides banned in importing countries. Furthermore, setting limits on flowers could reduce the use of pesticides in producing countries.

Plants growing in heavy-metal-rich soils can accumulate metals into their nectar. Nectar chemical composition can alter foraging behavior of floral visitors (including pollinators and floral antagonists) and further affect plant reproductive fitness. The role of nectar heavy metals in deterring pollinators (e.g., shortening foraging time) has been recently studied, but their effects on plant reproduction via changes in behaviors of both pollinators and floral antagonists (e.g., nectar robbers) are less understood. We experimentally manipulated four nectar heavy metals (Zn, Cu, Ni, and Pb) in a native ornamental plant, Hosta ensata F. Maekawa, to investigate the effect of nectar metals on plant reproductive success. We also recorded nectar robbing as well as foraging time and visitation rate of pollinators to assess whether nectar metals could alter the behavior of antagonists and mutualists. Although metals in nectar had no significant direct effects on plant reproduction via hand-pollination, we detected their positive indirect effects on components of female fitness mediated by pollinators and nectar robbers. Matching effects on female plant fitness, nectar robbers responded negatively to the presence of metals in nectar, robbing metal-treated flowers less often. Pollinators spent less time foraging on metal-treated flowers, but their visitation rate to metal-treated flowers was significantly higher than to control flowers. Moreover, pollinators removed less nectar from flowers treated with metals. Our results provide the first direct evidence to date that heavy metals in nectar are capable of deterring nectar robbers and modifying pollinator foraging behavior to enhance plant reproductive fitness.

Mesocosms representing the BAP Priority habitat ‘Calcareous Grassland’ were exposed to eight ozone profiles for twelve-weeks in two consecutive years. Half of the mesocosms received a reduced watering regime during the exposure periods. Numbers and timing of flowering in the second exposure period were related to ozone concentration and phytotoxic ozone dose (accumulated stomatal flux). For Lotus corniculatus, ozone accelerated the timing of the maximum number of flowers. An increase in mean ozone concentration from 30ppb to 70ppb corresponded with an advance in the timing of maximum flowering by six days. A significant reduction in flower numbers with increasing ozone was found for Campanula rotundifolia and Scabiosa columbaria and the relationship with ozone was stronger for those that were well-watered than for those with reduced watering. These changes in flowering timing and numbers could have large ecological impacts, affecting plant pollination and the food supply of nectar feeding insects.

Common air pollutants, such as nitrogen oxides (NOₓ), emitted in diesel exhaust, and ozone (O₃), have been implicated in the decline of pollinating insects. Reductionist laboratory assays, focused upon interactions between a narrow range of flowering plant and pollinator species, in combination with atmospheric chemistry models, indicate that such pollutants can chemically alter floral odors, disrupting the cues that foraging insects use to find and pollinate flowers. However, odor environments in nature are highly complex and pollination services are commonly provided by suites of insect species, each exhibiting different sensitivities to different floral odors. Therefore, the potential impacts of pollution-induced foraging disruption on both insect ecology, and the pollination services that insects provide, are currently unknown. We conducted in-situ field studies to investigate whether such pollutants could reduce pollinator foraging and as a result the pollination ecosystem service that those insects provide. Using free-air fumigation, we show that elevating diesel exhaust and O₃, individually and in combination, to levels lower than is considered safe under current air quality standards, significantly reduced counts of locally-occurring wild and managed insect pollinators by 62–70% and their flower visits by 83–90%. These reductions were driven by changes in specific pollinator groups, including bees, flies, moths and butterflies, and coincided with significant reductions (14–31%) in three different metrics of pollination and yield of a self-fertile test plant. Quantifying such effects provides new insights into the impacts of human-induced air pollution on the natural ecosystem services upon which we depend.

The current study for the first time demonstrates the interference of a free-living, N₂-fixing, and nanoparticle (NP) tolerant Azotobacter salinestris strain ASM recovered from metal-polluted soil with tomato plant-metal oxide NPs (ZnO, CuO, Al₂O₃, and TiO₂) interactions in a sandy clay loam soil system with bulk materials as control. Tomato plants were grown till full maturity in soils amended with 20–2000 mg kg⁻¹ of each metal-oxide NP with and without seed biopriming and root-inoculation of A. salinestris. A. salinestris was found metabolically active, producing considerably high amounts of bioactive indole-3-acetic-acid, morphologically unaffected, and with low alteration of cell membrane permeability under 125–1500 μgml⁻¹ of NPs. However, ZnO-NPs slightly alter bacterial membrane permeability. Besides, A. salinestris secreted significantly higher amounts of extracellular polymeric substance (EPS) even under NP exposure, which could entrap the NPs and form metal-EPS complex as revealed and quantified by SEM-EDX. NPs were also found adsorbed on bacterial biomass. EPS stabilized the NPs and provided negative zeta potential to NPs. Following soil application, A. salinestris improved the plant performance and augmented the yield of tomato fruits and lycopene content even in NPs stressed soils. Interestingly, A. salinestris inoculation enhanced photosynthetic pigment formation, flower attributes, plant and fruit biomass, and reduced proline level. Bacterial inoculation also reduced the NP’s uptake and accumulation significantly in vegetative organs and fruits. The organ wise order of NP’s internalization was roots > shoots > fruits. Conclusively, A. salinestris inoculation could be an alternative to increase the production of tomato in metal-oxide NPs contaminated soils.

Recent studies have shown that sub-lethal doses of herbicides may affect plant flowering, however, no study has established a direct relationship between the concentrations of deposited herbicide and plant flowering. Here the aim was to investigate the relationship between herbicide spray drift deposited on non-target plants and plant flowering in a realistic agro-ecosystem setting. The concentrations of the herbicide glyphosate deposited on plants were estimated by measuring the concentration of a dye tracer applied together with the herbicide. The estimated maximal and average deposition of glyphosate within the experimental area corresponded to 30 g glyphosate/ha (2.08% of the label rate of 1440 g a.i./ha) and 2.4 g glyphosate/ha (0.15% label rate), respectively, and the concentrations decreased rapidly with increasing distance from the spraying track. However, there were not a unique relation between distance and deposition, which indicate that heterogeneities of turbulence, wind speed and/or direction can strongly influence the deposition from 1 min to another during spraying. The effects of glyphosate on cumulative flower numbers and flowering time were modelled using Gompertz growth models on four non-target species. Glyphosate had a significantly negative effect on the cumulative number of flowers on Trifolium pratense and Lotus corniculatus, whereas there were no significant effects on Trifolium repens, and a positive, but non-significant, effect on number of flowers on Cichorium intybus. Glyphosate did not affect the flowering time of any of the four species significantly. Lack of floral resources is known to be of major importance for pollinator declines. The implications of the presented results for pesticide risk assessment are discussed.

Tropospheric ozone is a highly oxidative pollutant with the potential to alter plant metabolism. The direct effects of ozone on plant phenotype may alter interactions with other organisms, such as pollinators, and, consequently, affect plant reproductive success. In a set of greenhouse experiments, we tested whether exposure of plants to a high level of ozone affected their phenological development, their attractiveness to four different pollinators (mason bees, honeybees, hoverflies and bumblebees) and, ultimately, their reproductive success. Exposure of plants to ozone accelerated flowering, particularly on plants that were growing in autumn, when light and temperature cues, that commonly promote flowering, were weaker. Simultaneously, there was a tendency for ozone-exposed plants to disinvest in vegetative growth. Plant exposure to ozone did not substantially affect pollinator preference, but bumblebees had a tendency to visit more flowers on ozone-exposed plants, an effect that was driven by the fact that these plants tended to have more open flowers, meaning a stronger attraction signal. Honeybees spent more time per flower on ozone-exposed plants than on control plants. Acceleration of flower production and the behavioural responses of pollinators to ozone-exposed plants resulted in retained reproductive fitness of plants pollinated by bumblebees, honeybees and mason bees, despite the negative effects of ozone on plant growth. Plants that were pollinated by hoverflies had a reduction in reproductive fitness in response to ozone. In a natural setting, acceleration of flowering by ozone might foster desynchronization between plant and pollinator activities. This can have a strong impact on plants with short flowering periods and on plants that, unlike wild mustard, lack compensatory mechanisms to cope with the absence of pollinator activity in the beginning of flowering.