The nutritional quality of a new strain of genetically modified rice (Oryza sativa L.) expressing human lactoferrin gene (hLF rice) was evaluated on the basis of components, nutrient digestibility in pigs, protein availability in rats and protein digestibility corrected amino acid scores (PDCAAS), and compared to its parental rice variety (PR rice). Although exogenous human lactoferrin gene was introduced, it did not interfere with the digestibility of protein, carbohydrates, fat and crude fiber. The revised protein efficiency ratio of hLF rice was increased to 2.50, which was significantly higher than that of PR rice. The PDCAAS of PR rice was 52.66 and its first limiting amino acid was lysine, while the PDCAAS of hLF rice was improved to 54.06 and its first limiting amino acid was tryptophan. Thus, it can be concluded that the nutritional quality of hLF rice is superior to PR rice according to the results of availability experiments and PDCAAS, and the hLF rice would be a superior strain of rice based on protein composition of the grain.

To assess the protein quality and the nutritive value of seven Algerian local sorghum cultivars, the in vitro pepsin digestibility was determined, which ranged from 25.0% to 65.0%, and the amino acid composition of each cultivar was compared with other sorghum cultivars. In addition, the amino acid scores (AAS) and the protein digestibility-corrected amino acid scores (PDCAAS) were calculated. Relative to the WHO protein standard, most of the sorghum cultivars tested, scored very high AAS, with values ranging between 0.9 and 2.6 except for lysine, methionine and cysteine. The PDCAAS were high for Ain Salah cultivars AS1 and AS3, however, all other cultivars showed low values except for leucine. This study confirmed that in terms of both quantity and quality, sorghum proteins could serve as a source of essential amino acids and as a potential source of proteins in the future.

BACKGROUND: The almond of the baru tree (Dipteryx alata Vog.), a native species of the Brazilian Savanna, is used in the gastronomy of the central western region of the country. There is relatively little information about the chemical composition and nutritional value of the baru almond, which was the motivation for this research.RESULTS: The baru almonds had high lipid (397-437 g kg⁻¹) and protein (238-281 g kg⁻¹) contents. There were differences in the amino acid score (AAS = 83-103%) and limiting amount of sulfur amino acids, depending on the origin of the almond. The protein value of the baru almond was higher than that of the peanut according to the relative net protein ratio (RNPRBaru = 74%, RNPRPeanut = 66%) and the protein digestibility-corrected amino acid score (PDCAAS). The baru almond also had high iron (mean 48.1 mg kg⁻¹), zinc (mean 46.6 mg kg⁻¹) and dietary fibre (mean 115.8 g kg⁻¹) contents in relation to Dietary Reference Intakes.CONCLUSION: The baru almond has a high nutrient density and high content of quality protein. Furthermore, the lipid and protein contents and amino acid profile of the baru almond are representative of edible seeds and similar to those of true nuts. This almond can be used as a complementary source of protein and as an excellent option for a healthy diet.

Mucuna bean ( Mucuna pruriens L.) is grown in many parts of Kenya as a green manure/cover crop. The bean contains a high content of crude protein. However, it remains a minor food crop due to the presence of anti-nutritional compounds such as 3,4-dihydroxy-L-phenylalanine (L-Dopa). The potential for utilization of mucuna bean as an alternative source of protein was evaluated by assessing the effect of various processing methods on its protein quality. Mucuna bean was processed to remove L-Dopa and other anti-nutritional compounds by different methods such as soaking, autoclaving, roasting, germination, and alkaline fermentation. Protein quality was determined by amino acid composition, in vitro and in vivo rat balance methodologies. All processing methods except roasting improved in vitro protein digestibility (IVPD). Soaking in acidic medium (pH 3.2) at 60°C for 48 hrs significantly improved IVPD (80.5%) and biological value (80.8) of mucuna bean protein. The content of essential amino acids met the recommended FAO/WHO reference requirements for 2-5 yr old except for tryptophan. However, true digestibility for processed bean diet was poor (58%) and protein digestibility corrected amino acid score (PDCAAS) low (0.4) compared to that of reference casein (1.0). This was attributed to both low sulphur amino acids content and possible presence of factors that affect protein hydrolysis such as phenolic compounds. Mucuna protein diet did not support growth of weanling rats indicating amino acids pattern incompatible with the needs of weanling rats. Histological examination of liver and kidney tissues revealed that consumption of processed mucuna bean as the only source of protein caused inflammation of the organs. This suggests possible presence of other antitoxins in processed bean even though mucuna bean diet contained the recommended safe level of residual L-Dopa (<0.1%). Processing mucuna bean by soaking in acidic medium (pH 3.2) at 60°C for 48 hrs improved protein quality. However, mucuna bean is not recommended as a sole protein in human diet.

Mucuna bean ( Mucuna pruriens L.) is grown in many parts of Kenya as a green manure/cover crop. The bean contains a high content of crude protein. However, it remains a minor food crop due to the presence of anti-nutritional compounds such as 3,4-dihydroxy-L-phenylalanine (L-Dopa). The potential for utilization of mucuna bean as an alternative source of protein was evaluated by assessing the effect of various processing methods on its protein quality. Mucuna bean was processed to remove L-Dopa and other anti-nutritional compounds by different methods such as soaking, autoclaving, roasting, germination, and alkaline fermentation. Protein quality was determined by amino acid composition, in vitro and in vivo rat balance methodologies. All processing methods except roasting improved in vitro protein digestibility (IVPD). Soaking in acidic medium (pH 3.2) at 60°C for 48 hrs significantly improved IVPD (80.5%) and biological value (80.8) of mucuna bean protein. The content of essential amino acids met the recommended FAO/WHO reference requirements for 2-5 yr old except for tryptophan. However, true digestibility for processed bean diet was poor (58%) and protein digestibility corrected amino acid score (PDCAAS) low (0.4) compared to that of reference casein (1.0). This was attributed to both low sulphur amino acids content and possible presence of factors that affect protein hydrolysis such as phenolic compounds. Mucuna protein diet did not support growth of weanling rats indicating amino acids pattern incompatible with the needs of weanling rats. Histological examination of liver and kidney tissues revealed that consumption of processed mucuna bean as the only source of protein caused inflammation of the organs. This suggests possible presence of other antitoxins in processed bean even though mucuna bean diet contained the recommended safe level of residual L-Dopa (<0.1%). Processing mucuna bean by soaking in acidic medium (pH 3.2) at 60°C for 48 hrs improved protein quality. However, mucuna bean is not recommended as a sole protein in human diet.

Mucuna bean ( Mucuna pruriens L.) is grown in many parts of Kenya as a green manure/cover crop. The bean contains a high content of crude protein. However, it remains a minor food crop due to the presence of anti-nutritional compounds such as 3,4-dihydroxy-L-phenylalanine (L-Dopa). The potential for utilization of mucuna bean as an alternative source of protein was evaluated by assessing the effect of various processing methods on its protein quality. Mucuna bean was processed to remove L-Dopa and other anti-nutritional compounds by different methods such as soaking, autoclaving, roasting, germination, and alkaline fermentation. Protein quality was determined by amino acid composition, in vitro and in vivo rat balance methodologies. All processing methods except roasting improved in vitro protein digestibility (IVPD). Soaking in acidic medium (pH 3.2) at 60°C for 48 hrs significantly improved IVPD (80.5%) and biological value (80.8) of mucuna bean protein. The content of essential amino acids met the recommended FAO/WHO reference requirements for 2-5 yr old except for tryptophan. However, true digestibility for processed bean diet was poor (58%) and protein digestibility corrected amino acid score (PDCAAS) low (0.4) compared to that of reference casein (1.0). This was attributed to both low sulphur amino acids content and possible presence of factors that affect protein hydrolysis such as phenolic compounds. Mucuna protein diet did not support growth of weanling rats indicating amino acids pattern incompatible with the needs of weanling rats. Histological examination of liver and kidney tissues revealed that consumption of processed mucuna bean as the only source of protein caused inflammation of the organs. This suggests possible presence of other antitoxins in processed bean even though mucuna bean diet contained the recommended safe level of residual L-Dopa (&lt;0.1%). Processing mucuna bean by soaking in acidic medium (pH 3.2) at 60°C for 48 hrs improved protein quality. However, mucuna bean is not recommended as a sole protein in human diet.

Mucuna bean (Mucuna pruriens L.) is grown in many parts of Kenya as a green manure/cover crop. The bean contains a high content of crude protein. However, it remains a minor food crop due to the presence of anti-nutritional compounds such as 3,4-dihydroxy-L-phenylalanine (L-Dopa). The potential for utilization of mucuna bean as an alternative source of protein was evaluated by assessing the effect of various processing methods on its protein quality. Mucuna bean was processed to remove L-Dopa and other anti-nutritional compounds by different methods such as soaking, autoclaving, roasting, germination, and alkaline fermentation. Protein quality was determined by amino acid composition, in vitro and in vivo rat balance methodologies. All processing methods except roasting improved in vitro protein digestibility (IVPD). Soaking in acidic medium (pH 3.2) at 60°C for 48 hrs significantly improved IVPD (80.5%) and biological value (80.8) of mucuna bean protein. The content of essential amino acids met the recommended FAO/WHO reference requirements for 2-5 yr old except for tryptophan. However, true digestibility for processed bean diet was poor (58%) and protein digestibilitycorrected amino acid score (PDCAAS) low (0.4) compared to that of reference casein (1.0). This was attributed to both low sulphur amino acids content and possible presence of factors that affect protein hydrolysis such as phenolic compounds. Mucuna protein diet did not support growth of weanling rats indicating amino acids pattern incompatible with the needs of weanling rats. Histological examination of liver and kidney tissues revealed that consumption of processed mucuna bean as the only source of protein caused inflammation of the organs. This suggests possible presence of other antitoxins in processed bean even though mucuna bean diet contained the recommended safe level of residual L-Dopa (<0.1%). Processing mucuna bean by soaking in acidic medium (pH 3.2) at 60°C for 48 hrs improved protein quality. However, mucuna bean is not recommended as a sole protein in human diet.

A Thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the Doctor of Philosophy Degree of Makerere University | Background The transition from exclusive breastfeeding to family foods, referred to as complementary feeding, is a very vulnerable phase that typically covers the period from 6 to 24 months of age of infants and young children. It is the time when growth faltering starts in developing countries. This is due to the traditional complementary foods, which are often inadequate to meet the nutritional requirements of infants because of their low energy density and poor digestibility and bioavailability of nutrients. Dietary quality rather than quantity appears to be the key problem with complementary food diets. There is need to optimize the processing conditions using local technologies like germination and extrusion cooking to produce complementary foods that have good protein quality, are energy dense and have improved micronutrient availability. Objective of the study The main objective of the study was to produce energy dense and good protein quality complementary foods using malting and extrusion processing. Methods Finger millet, field pea and soybean were germinated at 25°C and 30°C for 48hours and 72hour and extrusion in a twin screw 600JR Insta-Pro extruder at extrusion temperatures that ranged from 110 to 160°C, dried and made into flours. The flours were analysed for changes due to germination and extrusion processing for proximate principles, minerals, sugar, starch, amino acids, vitamin A, fatty acids, dietary fiber, antinutritional factors (trypsin inhibitors, lectins, condensed tannins and phytates) and viscosity. Iron and zinc molar ratios were also determined. Blends with cereal-legume ratio of 70:30 respectively, were prepared from ungerminated, germinated and extruded grains and enriched with fish at 5% level. The influence of germination and extrusion on porridges cooled to 45°C and viscosities < 3.0 Pa.s were investigated for their rheological and nutritional properties. Isocaloric 400 kcal 100g-1 and isonitrogenous 10% complementary diets were formulated and fed to weanling rats for 5 days to assess the digestibility and metabolic efficiency of the diets. The growth study was also conducted for 28 days and Casein + 0.3% was used as the control diet. Protein quality was assessed using various biological indices; amino acid scores, protein digestibility corrected amino acid scores (PDCAAS), protein efficiency ratio (PER), weight gain, food transformation ratio (FTI), apparent digestibility coefficient (ADC), true protein digestibility (TPD), nitrogen retention, biological value (BV), net protein utilization (NPU) and net protein ratio (NPR) according to AOAC (2000). Histological investigations on the sytemic organs and light microscopic morphormetric (stereological) evaluation on intestines were studied following the method of Baddeley et al. (1986). Results The optimum germination condition at 30C for 48hours was more effective in reducing viscosity and increasing energy density of the finger millet/soybean diet to 20% solids, compared with extrusion processing (15% solids) of the same diet. The energy densities of finger millet-soybean porridges were sufficient to cover energy required for average breast fed infants aged 6 to 11 months receiving two meals of complementary foods per day. Germination significantly (P<0.05) reduced or eliminated α-galactosides from the legumes while longer germination conditions resulted in increased dry matter loss without appreciable increase in nutrients. The optimum extrusion processing temperature of 138-141ºC favourable (P<0.05) reduced the ANFs, making extruded finger millet/soybean diet free of trypsin inhibitor activity (TIA), lectins and low levels of condensed tannins (CTs) and phytates compared to germination processing. The relative inhibitory effect of the soybean phytates were overcome which simultaneously increased the iron and zinc bioavailability to high and moderate levels respectively. However, the reduction in phytates due to extrusion processing was not enough to compensate for the rather low iron and zinc content of the complementary foods. The amino acid scores for all the complementary diets ranged from 68 to 86%, true protein digestibility from 71 to 92%, protein digestibility corrected amino acid scores from 53 to 0.74 expressed as a proportion of the respective amino acids for infant’s amino acid requirements. The growth trials showed that unprocessed finger millet/field pea and extruded finger millet/soybean diets produced growth performance that were similar (P≥0.05) to the control diets in terms of PER, weight gain, FTI, ADC, BV and NPU. Fish fortification significantly (P<0.05) improved the protein quality of all the diets and it’s inclusion in extruded diet was highly liked and accepted by consumers. Histopathology of the organs showed the presence of pancreatic hypertrophy and hyperplasia among the rats fed all the diets except the control and the fish fortified germinated finger millet/field pea diets. This was confirmed by the significant increases (P<0.05) in the weight of the pancreas. The animals fed the unprocessed and germinated finger millet/soybean diets induced the the least growth rates which was followed by significant (P<0.05) decrease of the organs (kidney, liver and heart) per/body ratio, shortening of villus length and enterocyte heights. These were due to nutrient restriction and absorption and the multiple biologically active components (lectins, TIA, CTs and phytates) in those diets. Conclusion and recommendations Composite complementary foods produced from combinations of finger millet and soybean resulted in nutritionally improved food products which were further improved with fish fortification therefore, supporting the concept of legume/cereal/animal foods complementation and enhancement for feeding infants. Germination was a better method in producing high energy-density complementary foods, free of α-galactosides but with appreciable loss in amino acids. While extrusion processing produced complementary foods with high energy density, improved protein quality that resulted in better growth than that from germination. Extrusion processing therefore is recommended as the method for preparing high energy and nutrient dense infant and young children’s complementary foods.

Background The transition from exclusive breastfeeding to family foods, referred to as complementary feeding, is a very vulnerable phase that typically covers the period from 6 to 24 months of age of infants and young children. It is the time when growth faltering starts in developing countries. This is due to the traditional complementary foods, which are often inadequate to meet the nutritional requirements of infants because of their low energy density and poor digestibility and bioavailability of nutrients. Dietary quality rather than quantity appears to be the key problem with complementary food diets. There is need to optimize the processing conditions using local technologies like germination and extrusion cooking to produce complementary foods that have good protein quality, are energy dense and have improved micronutrient availability. Objective of the study The main objective of the study was to produce energy dense and good protein quality complementary foods using malting and extrusion processing. Methods Finger millet, field pea and soybean were germinated at 25°C and 30°C for 48hours and 72hour and extrusion in a twin screw 600JR Insta-Pro extruder at extrusion temperatures that ranged from 110 to 160°C, dried and made into flours. The flours were analysed for changes due to germination and extrusion processing for proximate principles, minerals, sugar, starch, amino acids, vitamin A, fatty acids, dietary fiber, antinutritional factors (trypsin inhibitors, lectins, condensed tannins and phytates) and viscosity. Iron and zinc molar ratios were also determined. Blends with cereal-legume ratio of 70:30 respectively, were prepared from ungerminated, germinated and extruded grains and enriched with fish at 5% level. The influence of germination and extrusion on porridges cooled to 45°C and viscosities < 3.0 Pa.s were investigated for their rheological and nutritional properties. Isocaloric 400 kcal 100g-1 and isonitrogenous 10% complementary diets were formulated and fed to weanling rats for 5 days to assess the digestibility and metabolic efficiency of the diets. The growth study was also conducted for 28 days and Casein + 0.3% was used as the control diet. Protein quality was assessed using various biological indices; amino acid scores, protein digestibility corrected amino acid scores (PDCAAS), protein efficiency ratio (PER), weight gain, food transformation ratio (FTI), apparent digestibility coefficient (ADC), true protein digestibility (TPD), nitrogen retention, biological value (BV), net protein utilization (NPU) and net protein ratio (NPR) according to AOAC (2000). Histological investigations on the sytemic organs and light microscopic morphormetric (stereological) evaluation on intestines were studied following the method of Baddeley et al. (1986). Results The optimum germination condition at 30C for 48hours was more effective in reducing viscosity and increasing energy density of the finger millet/soybean diet to 20% solids, compared with extrusion processing (15% solids) of the same diet. The energy densities of finger millet-soybean porridges were sufficient to cover energy required for average breast fed infants aged 6 to 11 months receiving two meals of complementary foods per day. Germination significantly (P<0.05) reduced or eliminated α-galactosides from the legumes while longer germination conditions resulted in increased dry matter loss without appreciable increase in nutrients. The optimum extrusion processing temperature of 138-141ºC favourable (P<0.05) reduced the ANFs, making extruded finger millet/soybean diet free of trypsin inhibitor activity (TIA), lectins and low levels of condensed tannins (CTs) and phytates compared to germination processing. The relative inhibitory effect of the soybean phytates were overcome which simultaneously increased the iron and zinc bioavailability to high and moderate levels respectively. However, the reduction in phytates due to extrusion processing was not enough to compensate for the rather low iron and zinc content of the complementary foods. The amino acid scores for all the complementary diets ranged from 68 to 86%, true protein digestibility from 71 to 92%, protein digestibility corrected amino acid scores from 53 to 0.74 expressed as a proportion of the respective amino acids for infant’s amino acid requirements. The growth trials showed that unprocessed finger millet/field pea and extruded finger millet/soybean diets produced growth performance that were similar (P≥0.05) to the control diets in terms of PER, weight gain, FTI, ADC, BV and NPU. Fish fortification significantly (P<0.05) improved the protein quality of all the diets and it’s inclusion in extruded diet was highly liked and accepted by consumers. Histopathology of the organs showed the presence of pancreatic hypertrophy and hyperplasia among the rats fed all the diets except the control and the fish fortified germinated finger millet/field pea diets. This was confirmed by the significant increases (P<0.05) in the weight of the pancreas. The animals fed the unprocessed and germinated finger millet/soybean diets induced the the least growth rates which was followed by significant (P<0.05) decrease of the organs (kidney, liver and heart) per/body ratio, shortening of villus length and enterocyte heights. These were due to nutrient restriction and absorption and the multiple biologically active components (lectins, TIA, CTs and phytates) in those diets. Conclusion and recommendations Composite complementary foods produced from combinations of finger millet and soybean resulted in nutritionally improved food products which were further improved with fish fortification therefore, supporting the concept of legume/cereal/animal foods complementation and enhancement for feeding infants. Germination was a better method in producing high energy-density complementary foods, free of α-galactosides but with appreciable loss in amino acids. While extrusion processing produced complementary foods with high energy density, improved protein quality that resulted in better growth than that from germination. Extrusion processing therefore is recommended as the method for preparing high energy and nutrient dense infant and young children’s complementary foods.