International agri-food trade has expanded rapidly during the past decades and changed considerably in structure with important implications especially for developing economies. One of the main environmental concerns regarding international trade is about the exploitation and redistribution of water resources. In this paper we use the virtual water approach for analyzing the relation between global agri-food trade, its structure and virtual water flows in the period of 1986 to 2011. Specifically, for five world regions we calculate growth rates of interregional trade values and virtual water volumes, the contribution of different product groups to trade and the economic water efficiency of imports and exports. Our findings show that over time trade values have generally increased more rapidly than virtual water volumes. In Africa and South America virtual water exports have roughly quadrupled since 1986. In all regions staples and industrial products account for the largest share in virtual water trade. The recent shift towards high-value exports is beneficial for developing countries from a regional water efficiency perspective due to high trade values and low associated virtual water volumes. Water efficiency of trade has increased in all regions since 2000 and export water efficiency is especially high in Europe.

The present Technical Report examines the potential synergies between energy, water and agricultural production in Africa. It aims to highlight strategies that address important challenges in an integrated manner. In this regard, the deployment of clean energy sources through the utilization of indigenous African renewable sources aims to provide the required energy to extract, process and convey water resources that will eventually support agricultural activities and food production. | JRC.C.2 - Energy Efficiency and Renewables

This study used Wood-Based Activated Carbon Fibers Paperboard (WACFP) to investigate the water activity (Aw), color difference (sup deltaE*) change, and percent weight with various Aw foods in the environment systems at the relative humidity of (RH) 90 and 40% and temperature of 25degC, which were expected to be references for food moisture-proof material. From the Aw result, WACFPs was 0.47-0.50, which was lower than the habitat for general microorganisms. WACFP with 40% wood-based activated carbon fibers (WACFs) had better stability for high, intermediate, and low Aw foods (HAwF, MAwF, and LAwF) in the RH 90 or 40% environment than the other specimens. In the RH 90% environment, the hygroscopic ability of WACFP was 4.49-6.18%; while that at RH 40% was 1.69-2.20%. According to the simulation results of WACFPs, as food moisture-proof material in HAwF, MAwF, and LAwF in the RH 90% environment, WACFPs had a good stability in MAwF. The Aw change was 0.02-0.03, the sup deltaE* change was 1.24-2.70, and the percent weight was -0.26-0.31%. In terms of RH 40%, better stability occurred in HAwF, where the difference of Aw was 0.02-0.03, the sup deltaE* change was 1.23-2.83, and the percent weight was -1.22 - -1.24%. The developed WACFP; therefore, can be an optional food moisture-proof material for different Aw food systems.

This article illustrates a method for applying the water-food-energy nexus approach to propose an optimal cropping pattern. The proposed cropping pattern maximizes economic water and energy productivity and minimizes water and energy use. Through this method a water-food-energy nexus index is applied. A case study from Egypt is applied to illustrate the method.

Water security is a concept with several aspects and dimensions. We identify four such dimensions, each consisting of two complementary aspects: direct-indirect, macro-micro, technical-political, and peace-conflict. We investigate this idea with a case study focusing on one aspect along each dimension. The case analyzes the indirect role of water for food security at global scale, using quantitative spatial approach. We find such a case particularly interesting, as food production is the planet’s biggest anthropogenic water user and food security is thus in many ways interwoven to water security. We analyze where water scarcity hampers food production, and how food trade influences this interplay. We also consider how societal resilience relates to these themes, and identify regions that face particular challenges in this regard. With this we systematize the concept of water security and link it with to issues of vulnerability, resilience, and, ultimately, sustainability.

A água é um bem precioso e insubstituível. É um recurso natural fundamental para as diferentes atividades humanas e para a vida na terra, propiciando ao homem qualidade de vida, por meio de seu uso na produção de alimentos para abastecimento das populações, na irrigação e na produção de energia, entre outros.

At global scale, the majority of world water withdrawal is for the agricultural sector, with differences among countries depending on the relevance of agri-food sector in the economy. Virtual water and water footprint could be useful to express the impact on the water resources of each production process and good with the objective to lead to a sustainable use of water at a global level. International trade could be connected to the virtual water flows, in fact through commodities importation, water poor countries can save their own water resources. The present paper focuses on the bilateral virtual water flows connected to the top ten agri-food products traded between Italy and China. Comparing the virtual water flow related to the top 10 agri-food products, the virtual water flow from Italy to China is bigger than the water flow in the opposite direction. Moreover, the composition of virtual water flows is different; Italy imports significant amounts of grey water from China, depending on the different environmental strategies adopted by the two selected countries. This difference could be also related to the fact that traded commodities are very different; the 91% of virtual water imported by Italy is connected to crops products, while the 95% of virtual water imported by China is related to the animal products. Considering national water saving and global water saving, appears that Italy imports virtual water from China while China exerts pressure on its water resources to supply the exports to Italy. This result at global scale implies a global water loss of 129.29millionm3 because, in general, the agri-food products are traded from the area with lower water productivity to the area with the higher water productivity.

The water, energy and food nexus (WEF nexus) is currently quite popular in environmental management. The concept found a fertile ground in science and policymaking, but there is no consistent view on the meaning of integration within the nexus. Here, a wealth of publications is reviewed in an endeavour to: (1) reveal the lines of justification for the need of the WEF nexus debate and (2) identify the range of tools for analysing the interdependent resource issues of the nexus using an integrated framework of science and policy. There are three drivers behind the emergence of the nexus thinking. These are a) increasing resource interlinks due to growing scarcities, b) recent resource supply crises, and c) failures of sector-driven management strategies. Evaluation of the WEF nexus integrative debate can be carried out using four key criteria, namely ability to change current policy debates, issue and thinking novelty, practicability and measurability, and clearness and implementation roadmap. It is clear that, although the nexus has been quite successful in changing policy debates, issue prioritization is missing and seems to be left to specific case studies and policymakers' choices. There is a high need for ‘incorporation’ and ‘cross-linking’ of issues between the three resources. In this regard, nexus governance is the missing link in the nexus debate.

Dams provide numerous economic benefits and can mitigate the adverse impacts of water variability and extreme climate events. However, such large-scale water infrastructure has also caused significant social and environmental costs, prompting calls for alternative, nature-based solutions. WLE suggests that collections of built and natural infrastructure, combined with participatory management approaches, can support water and food security, while enhancing livelihoods and environmental outcomes.

Wadi El-Rayan Protected Area (WERPA) is considered a model protectorate and an ecological restoration success. Development and mismanagement of Wadi El-Rayan vulnerable water resources could lead to the depletion of two artificial lakes and large scale deterioration of ecosystem health. We quantify the environmental value of preserving WERPA by applying the water–food–energy nexus approach and the concept of non-monetary opportunity cost. Three output indicators: agriculture, aquaculture and net energy production are selected to assess the value of different ecosystem health conditions under three water management scenarios. STELLA object oriented modeling environment has been used to simulate the scenarios that led to favorable, satisfactory, and critical ecosystem health conditions. The results demonstrated that the economic output that could be realized by reaching the favorable condition has twice the value of the acceptable condition.