BACKGROUND: Salmonella Enteritidis in poultry is one of the main causes of illness that can be controlled effectively by some plant compounds, antibiotics and probiotics. OBJECTIVES: This study compares the effect of rosemary, thyme, propolis, antibiotic and probiotic on the immune system and blood parameters of broilers challenged with Salmonella Enteritidis.  Methods: Four hundred and twenty 1-day- old male broiler chicks Cobb strain were divided into seven groups: including rosemary ethanol extract, ethanol extract of propolis, ethanol extract of thyme, and probiotics, virginiamycin (10%) and positive and negative controls, and were reared for 6 weeks. At the end of experiment chickens were sampled and slaughtered. RESULTS: The results showed that plant extracts with probiotics can improve the immune system, reduce serum lipids, reduce harmful bacteria such as Salmonella and E.coli and increase the beneficial bacteria such as lactic acid bacteria. CONCLUSIONS: This study showed that the herbal extracts and probiotics can be used as an alternative to antibiotics in broiler diets.

The aim of this study was to evaluate the antimicrobial activity and determine the minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) of the essential oils derived from Origanum vulgare (oregano), Melaleuca alternifolia (tea tree), Cinnamomum cassia (cassia), and Thymus vulgaris (white thyme) against Salmonella Typhimurium, Salmonella Enteritidis, Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus and Enterococcus faecalis. The study also investigated the ability of these different bacterial strains to develop adaptation after repetitive exposure to sub-lethal concentrations of these essential oils. The MBC of the essential oils studied was determined by disc diffusion and broth dilution methods. All essential oils showed antimicrobial effect against all bacterial strains. In general, the development of adaptation varied according to the bacterial strain and the essential oil (tea tree > white thyme > oregano). Therefore, it is important to use essential oils at efficient bactericidal doses in animal feed, food, and sanitizers, since bacteria can rapidly develop adaptation when exposed to sub-lethal concentrations of these oils.

The humoral and cell-mediated immune (CMI) response to 2 commercial killed Salmonella Enteritidis (SE) vaccines (Layermune and MBL SE4C) was evaluated in laying hens. Layers were distributed in 2 experimental groups. The first received a single immunization at 16 wk of age, while the second experimental group was immunized at 12 wk of age and again at 18 wk of age. Serum immunoglobulin (Ig)G antibodies were measured using a commercial SE ELISA kit and showed persistent levels from 3 to 32 and 34 wk post-vaccination. The vaccination protocol using 2 immunizations showed a higher seroconversion level than the single vaccination. However, our results for bacterial intracellular survival indicated that IgG titers were not linked with bacterial killing. Local IgA production was measured in the intestines and oviducts with an in-house SE whole cell antigen ELISA. Only the MBL SE4C vaccine elicited IgA antibody production when tested on intestine and oviduct mucosal secretions, 3-weeks post-vaccination in both immunization protocol groups. To evaluate the CMI response, the splenic T-cells and B-cells populations were analyzed using flow cytometry. The CD3/B-cell ratio decreased 3 wk after the second immunization in the twice vaccinated Layermune group due to an increase in B-cells.

Salmonella (S.) Enterica infection ranks among the most common food borne bacterial infections worldwide. Although there are six subspecies of S. Enterica, the vast majority of human and animal infections are caused by strains belonging to subspecies 1 serovar Typhimurium and Enteritidis. Recent reports on antibiotic resistance of Salmonella spp. are rising steadily. The increasing problem of antibiotic resistance has rekindled interest in bacteriophage to therapy. Therefore, we investigated the efficacy of bacteriophage in S. enterica serovar Enteritidis infected mice and pigs by measuring of body condition, body weight, bacterial colonization and weight of organs based on the in vitro analysis. In vitro experiment, phage cultured with S. Enteritidis showed clear lysis pattern, the plaque forming unit (PFU) of our phage culture was 1.5 × 10∨11 PFU/mL, and phage showed its maximum activity at 4 h post inoculation. In mouse experiment, there was no significant difference among experimental groups in the general body conditions and body weight of mice. However, there was difference in weight of liver and spleen depending on the experimental group (p less than 0.05). The weight of liver and spleen were reduced by the phage treatment. Also bacterial colonization in spleen and liver were significantly reduced by the phage treatment. In pig experiment, the general body conditions and body temperature exhibited not much difference among the pigs except few pigs in group 3 which showed poor body conditions. From the feces in each group, we could isolate the S. Enteritidis only from group 3. Bacterial enrichment culture was necessary for isolating the bacteria from 5 dpi and 10 dpi, however direct isolation was possible from 15 dpi feces. In phage treated group, postmortem lesion was better than non-phage treated group. Recently, antibiotic resistance concerns on the food-borne bacterial pathogens have been increasing because of the wide spread of the antibiotics resistance genes. This concern is widely transmitted to the human related public health. As one of the alternative treatments on the bacterial pathogens, attempt using phages have been made to control the bacterial diseases. The positive possibility of the trail using phage was observed to control the S. enterica serovar Enteritidis in this study even though the further analysis has been remained.

The innate immune system is a critical component directing the overall response of the immune system early in the inflammatory process. Evaluation of the innate immune system could offer a screening method for the selection of breeding stock from commercial chicken operations to improve flock health and prevent the loss of genes crucial to disease resistance. Three commercial broiler chicken lines (designated Lines A, B and C) were profiled for efficiency of their innate immunologic response. Oxidative burst and bactericidal functions of heterophils and monocytes, as well as heterophil degranulation, were analyzed. The birds were tested 1, 4, 8 and 15 days post-hatch. Individual lines differed in their ability to perform innate immunological responses during the first 15 days post-hatch. Although bactericidal capabilities were similar, oxidative burst responses by monocytes were low in comparison to that generated by heterophils. The fact that monocytes are not particularly adept at producing an oxidative burst at this age suggests that this is not a major avenue of innate defense by monocytes. Heterophil oxidative burst response was stronger in Line C than Line A during the first four days post-hatch. Line B showed no difference from Line C in heterophil oxidative burst response at 1 d, but produced a stronger response than Line C on 4 and 8 d post-hatch. Degranulation by heterophils showed significant differences in responses of Lines A and C depending on the day post-hatch, and stronger response in Line C vs Line B in the first four days post hatch. The first week post-hatch is an important time as chicks are particularly susceptible to infection as neonates. Mortality data of the commercial lines indicates that Line A is the most susceptible to demise, followed by Line C and then Line B. These results suggest that oxidative burst production efficiency is an important defensive function to monitor for immunoprofiling.

Virulence of three Canadian poultry strains of Salmonella enteritidis, namely phagetypes (PT) 4, 8 and 13, and one Salmonella heidelberg strain was assessed in orally and intraperitoneally inoculated one-day old chickens and compared to the virulence of a human S. enteritidis PT 4 strain from the United Kingdom (UK). The two PT 4 strains were also compared in orally inoculated adult laying hens. In addition, orally inoculated Balb/c mice were used to evaluate virulence of the above strains and two strains of Salmonella typhimurium containing different plasmids. In orally inoculated one-day old chickens, the UK S. enteritidis PT 4 strain was more virulent than the Canadian PT 4 strain. The UK PT 4 strain was also more virulent and invasive in adult laying hens than the Canadian PT 4 strain. The S. enteritidis PT 8 strain and one S. typhimurium strain isolated from a chicken hatchery were the most virulent for orally inoculated Balb/c mice. This strain of S. typhimurium contained the 60 megadalton plasmid associated with virulence for Balb/c mice which was not present in the S. typhimurium strain isolated from a pig with septicemic disease.

The common pathogen Salmonella enteirtidis (S. enteritidis) is the major cause of foodborne disease. Protein identification by peptide mass fingerprinting using the matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization time of fight (MALDI-TOF) mass spectrometry (MS) can analysis unambiguously identity the spots from 2-dimensional electrophoresis (2-DE) gel. In this report, we examined protein components from patterns of S. enteritidis proteins. In addition, antigens that are recognized by sera can be identified by immunoblotting.

Nematode eggs in liver tissues of two wild rats were recorded atthe Regional Veterinary Laboratory, Kota Bharu from 2014 to 2015. A total of 15 (2014) and 48 (2015) wild rats were examined by the laboratory for routine screening of zoonotic pathogens such as Leptospira sp. and others. On histological examination of the haematoxylin and eosin (H&E) stained liver tissues, masses of parasitic nematode eggs were observed. The shell of the eggsis striated with shallow polar prominences at either end. Numerous mini-pores can be seen on the outer shell as well. The eggswere identified as Capillaria hepatica (C. hepatica) nematode eggs, which causes hepatic capillariasis in rodents and numerous other mammal species, including humans. The wild rats were alsoshown to harbour Salmonella enteritidis from the intestine, E. coli from the lung and liver but none had leptospirosis by PCR. The purpose of this report is to highlight a common nematode of wildrats that is Capillaria hepatica infection in wild rats in Kelantan diagnosed by the Kota Bharu Regional Laboratory, in orderto create the awareness on concurrent parasitic infections which may cause reduced immunity thereby creating higher risk for other zoonotic pathogens such as leptospirosis.

In this study, a genetically engineered live attenuated Salmonella Enteritidis (SE) vaccine was evaluated for its ability to protect against Salmonella Typhimurium (ST) infection in chickens. The birds were orally primed with the vaccine on the 1st day of life and given an oral booster at 5 wk of age. Control birds were orally inoculated with phosphate-buffered saline. Both groups of birds were orally challenged with a virulent ST strain at 9 wk of age. Compared with the control chickens, the vaccinated chickens had significantly higher levels of systemic IgG and mucosal IgA against specific ST antigens and a significantly greater lymphoproliferative response to ST antigens. The excretion of ST into the feces was significantly lower in the vaccinated group than in the control group on days 9 and 13 d after challenge. In addition, the vaccinated group had significantly fewer pronounced gross lesions in the liver and spleen and lower bacterial counts in the internal organs than the control group after challenge. These data indicate that genetically engineered live attenuated SE may induce humoral and cellular immune responses against ST antigens and may confer protection against virulent ST challenge.

A temporal study was carried out to determine Salmonella prevalence, trends, major serovars, and their clusters from environmental samples, in poultry breeder flocks in Ontario between January 1998 and December 2008. Surveillance data were obtained from the Ontario Hatchery and Supply Flock Policy. Logistic regression with a random effect for flock was used to identify factors [poultry type, year (trend) and season] associated with the prevalence of Salmonella. A cluster detection test was used to identify clusters of common serovars. The period prevalence of Salmonella was 47.4% in broiler-breeder, 25.7% in layer-breeder, and 19.6% in turkey-breeder flocks. The overall trend in the prevalence of Salmonella was decreasing for all breeder types, due primarily to decreasing trends of Salmonella Heidelberg. The seasonal effects varied by year with the highest probability of Salmonella occurring in different seasons. The 4 most common serovars identified were Salmonella Heidelberg, Kentucky, Hadar, and Typhimurium in broiler-breeders; Salmonella Heidelberg, Brandenburg, Thompson, and Typhimurium in layer-breeders; and Salmonella Heidelberg, Saintpaul, Brandenburg, and Muenster in turkey-breeders. Salmonella Enteritidis was infrequently isolated in all poultry breeder types. Temporal clusters of different serovars were identified in all poultry breeder types. Clusters of Salmonella Heidelberg, Typhimurium, and Hadar from environmental samples from breeder flocks were detected during a similar period to clusters from hatchery fluff samples from the same population. Therefore, interventions at the breeder flock-level might help to reduce transmission of Salmonella from breeder flocks to hatcheries and possibly, to lower levels of the poultry production chain.